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= Siward, Earl of Northumbria =
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Introduction
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Siward ( or more recently ; ) or Sigurd (, ; died 1055) was an
important earl of 11th-century northern England. The Old Norse
nickname 'Digri' and its Latin translation 'Grossus' ("the stout") are
given to him by near-contemporary texts. He emerged as a regional
strongman in England during the reign of Cnut ("Canute the Great",
1016-1035). Cnut was a Scandinavian ruler who conquered most of
England in the 1010s, and Siward was one of many Scandinavians who
came to England in the aftermath, rising to become sub-ruler of most
of northern England. From 1033 at the latest, he was in control of
southern Northumbria, present-day Yorkshire, governing as earl on
Cnut's behalf.
Siward entrenched his position in northern England by marrying
Ælfflæd, the daughter of Ealdred, Earl of Bamburgh. After killing
Ealdred's successor Eadulf in 1041, Siward gained control of all
Northumbria. He supported Cnut's successors Harthacnut and Edward with
vital military aid and counsel, and probably gained control of the
middle shires of Northampton and Huntingdon by the 1050s. There is
some evidence that he spread Northumbrian control into Cumberland. In
the early 1050s, Siward turned against the Scottish king Mac Bethad
mac Findlaích ("Macbeth"). Despite the death of his son Osbjorn,
Siward defeated Mac Bethad in battle in 1054. More than half a
millennium later the adventure in Scotland earned him a place in
William Shakespeare's 'Macbeth'. Siward died in 1055, leaving one son,
Waltheof, who would eventually become Earl of Northumbria in 1072. St
Olave's church in York and nearby Heslington Hill are associated with
Siward.
Sources
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Source material on Siward's life and career is scarce. No contemporary
or near-contemporary biography has survived, and narratives from
around the time of his life such as the 'Encomium Emmae' and the 'Vita
Ædwardi Regis' scarcely mention him; historians depend on a few
entries in the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' and comparable Irish sources.
Later Anglo-Norman histories may or may not be reliable, but useful
ones include the 'Chronicle' of John of Worcester (compiled between
1124 and 1140), William of Malmesbury (writing between c. 1125 and
1142), Henry of Huntingdon (writing between c. 1133 and 1154), and
Orderic Vitalis (writing between c. 1114 and 1141). Other sources
include the material attributed to Symeon of Durham (compiled and
written as extant between the late 11th century and the first half of
the 12th century). Legendary material, such as that in hagiography or
later medieval sources such as John of Fordun or Andrew of Wyntoun, is
not generally regarded as useful beyond its limited potential for
cleanly preserving earlier source material.
Background
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Siward's career in northern England spanned the reigns of four
monarchs; from Cnut, Harold Harefoot, and Harthacnut, into the early
years of Edward the Confessor. Most important was the reign of Cnut,
in which so many new political figures rose to power that some
historians compare it to the Norman Conquest five decades later. These
"new men" were military figures, usually with weak hereditary links to
the West Saxon royal house that Cnut had deposed. As Cnut ruled
several Scandinavian kingdoms in addition to England, power at the
highest level was delegated to such strongmen. In England, it fell to
a handful of newly promoted "ealdormen" or "earls", who each ruled a
shire or group of shires on behalf of the king. Siward was, in the
words of historian Robin Fleming, "the third man in Cnut's new
triumvirate of earls", the other two being Godwine, Earl of Wessex and
Leofwine, Earl of Mercia.
Northern England in the 11th-century was a region quite distinct from
the rest of the country. The former kingdom of Northumbria stretched
from the Humber and Mersey estuaries, northward to the Firth of Forth,
where, passing the western Kingdom of Strathclyde, it met the Kingdom
of Alba (Scotland). Northumbria had been united with the West Saxon
English kingdom only in the 950s, by King Eadred, and subsequent
control was exerted through the agency of at least two ealdormen, one
to the north and one to the south of the River Tees. The former is
associated with the stronghold of Bamburgh, while the latter is
associated with the great Roman city of York. It was a politically
fragmented region. The western part, from Lancashire to Cumberland,
formed an older British stronghold and experienced links with and
settlement of Gaels, while in the rest of Northumbria; British
(predominantly in Yorkshire and further North) English and
Anglo-Scandinavian(generally restricted to the eastern coasts)
regional magnates--thegns, holds and high-reeves--exercised a
considerable degree of independence from the ealdormen. One such
example was the magnate Thurbrand, a hold in Yorkshire, probably based
in Holderness, whose family were frequently at odds with the ruling
earls at Bamburgh.
Ancestry
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|"The Stories of the ancients tell us that 'Ursus' (a certain nobleman
whom the Lord, contrary to what normally happens in human procreation,
allowed to be created from a white bear as a father and a noblewoman
as a mother), begot 'Spratlingus'; 'Spratlingus' begot 'Ulfius'; and
'Ulfius' begot 'Beorn', who was nicknamed 'Beresune', that is, "Bear's
Son". This Beorn was Danish by race, a distinguished earl and famous
soldier. As a sign, however, that due to part of his ancestry he was
of a different species, nature had given him the ears of his father's
line, namely those of a bear. In all other features he was of his
mother's appearance. And after many manly deeds and military
adventures, he begot a son, a tried imitator of his father's strength
and military skill. His name was Siward, nicknamed 'Diere', that is,
the Stout ('grossus')".
| -- A description of Siward's ancestry and his father Beorn, taken
from the 'Vita Waldevi', a saint's life dedicated to Siward's son
Waltheof.
Historians generally claim Siward to be of Scandinavian origin, a
conclusion supported by the 'Vita Ædwardi Regis', which states that
Siward was "[called] 'Digri' in the Danish tongue" ('Danica lingua
Digara'). Legendary material incorporated in the 'Vita et passio
Waldevi comitis' (or simply 'Vita Waldevi'), the hagiographic
biography of Siward's son Waltheof, states that Siward was the son of
a Scandinavian earl named Bjorn and provides a genealogy claiming that
he was the descendant of a polar bear, a commonplace piece of
Germanic folklore.
Historian Timothy Bolton has recently argued that the similarities
between these genealogies is evidence of a shared family tradition
between the descendants of Siward and Thorgil Sprakling. Bolton
hypothesized that Siward's alleged father Bjorn was probably a
historical figure, a brother of Thorgil Sprakling. Siward would then
have been first cousin to Earl Ulf, the earl of Denmark who married
Cnut's sister Estrith and founded the dynasty of Danish monarchs that
eventually succeeded Cnut's. Bolton argued that the Sprakling family
had only recently risen to prominence in Scandinavia, and so Siward's
career in England was another indication of that family's success in
Scandinavian politics.
The 'Vita Waldevi' provides further legendary detail of Siward's
journey from Scandinavia to England. According to the 'Vita', Siward
passed through Orkney, killing a dragon there before moving on to
Northumbria. There he encountered another dragon, before meeting an
Odin-like old man on a hill, who handed him a raven banner and
instructed him to proceed to London to receive the patronage of the
king of England.
Career under Cnut, Harold and Harthacnut
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|"[A]fter a short conversation the king took him [Siward] into his
service, and promised him the first position of dignity which became
vacant in his realm. After that Siward said farewell, and he and his
men took the way back to London. On the bridge not far from the
monastery [Westminster] he met the Earl of Huntingdon, Tosti, a Dane
by birth; the king hated him because he had married Earl Godwine's
daughter, sister to the queen. The earl crossed the foot-bridge so
near Siward that he soiled his mantle with his dirty feet; for at that
time it was fashionable to wear a mantle without any cord by which to
hold it up. Then blood rushed to his heart; yet he checked himself
from taking revenge on the spot, because the shame was inflicted upon
him by one who was on his way to the king's hall. But he remained
standing with his men by the same bridge until Tosti came from the
king; then he drew his sword and hacked off Tosti's head, and went
with it under his mantle back to the king's hall. Here he asked,
according to his promise, to give him the earldom of Huntingdon. But
as the earl had just left him, the king thought he was only joking.
Then Siward related his deed, and, as sure proof, cast the head down
before the king's feet. The king then kept his promise, and proclaimed
him at once earl of Huntingdon ... A few days later, the Northmen
began to attack the realm. The king then was in a state of
uncertainty, and deliberated with the great men of his realm as to
what means should be adopted; and they made over with one voice
Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmoreland to Earl Siward, and the
king invested him with earldom over them".
| -- A saga-like description of Siward's accession to power in
England, taken from the 'Vita Waldevi'
The exact date and context of Siward's arrival in England are unknown,
though the 'Vita Waldevi' offers a legendary account. Charters dating
to 1019, 1024, 1032, 1033 and 1035 mention a 'Si[ge]ward Minister',
"the thegn Siward", but it is impossible to securely identify any of
these names with the man who became Earl of Northumbria. The earliest
certain contemporary record of Siward occurs in a charter of King Cnut
to Ælfric Puttoc, Archbishop of York, in 1033. This charter
attestation can be identified as Siward the earl because he is styled
'dux' ("earl").
Although it is clear that Siward was earl by 1033, he may have
attained the position somewhat earlier. His predecessor Erik of
Hlathir last appeared in the historical sources in 1023, leaving a
ten-year gap during which Siward could have taken the position.
Although William of Malmesbury asserted that Erik was driven back to
Scandinavia, Scandinavian tradition firmly maintained he died in
England. Historian William Kapelle believed that Erik ceased to be
earl in or soon after 1023, and that Carl son of Thurbrand was
appointed hold or high-reeve ('heahgerefa') for the king in Yorkshire.
Carl retained this position, it was argued, even after Siward was
installed as earl a few years later, but from then on he acted as a
deputy to the earl rather than to the king. Richard Fletcher remained
agnostic on the point, although he did argue that Erik must have been
dead by 1028. Timothy Bolton, although rejecting Kapelle's argument
concerning Carl son of Thurbrand, believed Erik died c. 1023 and that
the earldom may have remained vacant for a period. Bolton argued that
Cnut left the earldom of Northumbria empty and appears to have paid it
little attention until the last years of his reign, and another
northerner Ealdred son of Uhtred rose to power in the political
vacuum.
When Cnut died in 1035, there were a number of rival claimants for his
throne. These included his sons Harthacnut and Harold Harefoot, as
well as Alfred Ætheling and Edward (later, King Edward the Confessor),
the exiled sons of Æthelred the Unready (who were also Harthacnut's
half-brothers). Isolated in Scandinavia, Harthacnut was unable to
prevent Harold Harefoot seizing the crown for himself. Ruling England
from 1035, Harold died in 1040 just as Harthacnut was preparing an
invasion. Arriving soon after Harold's death, Harthacnut reigned in
England only two years before his own death in 1042, a death that led
to the peaceful succession of Edward. Frank Barlow speculated on
Siward's political stance, guessing that during these upheavals Siward
assumed "a position of benevolent or prudent neutrality".
Siward is found in 1038, as 'Sywardus Comes' ("Earl Siward"),
witnessing a charter of King Harthacnut to the Abbey of Bury St
Edmunds. He witnessed a confirmation granted by Harthacnut to Fécamp
Abbey, between 1040 and 1042, of an earlier grant made by Cnut. In
1042, he witnessed grants by Harthacnut to Abingdon Abbey and to
Ælfwine, Bishop of Winchester.
Siward was, at some stage, married to Ælfflæd, daughter of Ealdred II
of Bamburgh, and granddaughter of Uhtred the Bold. The 'Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle' asserts that, in 1041 Eadwulf, Earl of Bamburgh, was
"betrayed" by King Harthacnut. The "betrayal" seems to have been
carried out by Siward; since when the 'Libellus de Exordio' and other
sources write about the same event, they say that Siward attacked and
killed Eadwulf. It was thus that Siward became earl of all
Northumbria, perhaps the first person to do so since Uhtred the Bold.
It is possible that Siward used Ælfflæd's lineage to claim the earldom
of Bamburgh for himself, although it is unclear whether the marriage
took place before or after Siward killed Eadwulf. Kapelle has pointed
out that no ruler of Bamburgh after Uhtred is attested at the English
royal court, which he argued "must mean they were in revolt" against
the monarchy, and that Siward's attack may therefore have been
encouraged by a monarch wishing to crush a rebellious or disloyal
vassal. Siward however probably had his own interests too. Killing
Eadwulf eliminated his main rival in the north, and the marriage
associated him with the family of Uhtred the Bold, and with Uhtred's
surviving grandson Gospatric.
There may nonetheless be a connection between the murder of Eadwulf
and events further south. For the same year the 'Chronicle' of John of
Worcester related that, because of an attack on two of Harthacnut's
tax-collectors there, Siward took part in a reprisal on the city and
monastery of Worcester. Harthacnut reigned only another year, dying on
8 June 1042. He was succeeded by the exiled English ætheling Edward.
As an ætheling, a royal prince with a present or likely future claim
on the throne, Edward appears to have been invited back by Harthacnut
in 1041, fortuitously smoothing over the coming change in ruler.
Edward was crowned king on Easter Day, 3 April 1043.
English affairs under Edward the Confessor
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Relations between Siward and King Edward appear to have been good.
Neither Siward nor any associates of Siward were punished by Edward in
later years. In fact, Siward appears to have been one of Edward's most
powerful supporters. On 16 November 1043, Siward, along with Earls
Godwine of Wessex and Leofric of Mercia, marched with King Edward
against his mother, Queen Emma, helping the king to deprive the queen
of her huge treasury. Edward then accused Emma of treason and deposed
Stigand, Bishop of Elmham, from his position "because he was closest
to his mother's counsel".
The Norman propagandist and historian, William of Poitiers, claimed
that Siward was among those who had sworn an oath to uphold Edward the
Confessor's alleged declaration that William II, Duke of Normandy
(later King William I), was to be his heir. Others said to have made
that oath were Earls Godwine of Wessex and Leofric of Mercia, along
with Stigand, who had been pardoned in 1044, and raised to Bishop of
Winchester in 1047. If this did happen, it was probably during or a
little before spring 1051, when Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury, was
journeying to Rome for his pallium.
In 1051 Siward, along with Earls Leofric and Ralph the Timid,
mobilised forces in defence of the king against a rebellion by Earl
Godwine and his sons. The 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' relates that
although Siward had to call up reinforcements, King Edward was
successful and Earl Godwine was temporarily exiled. Earl Godwine
remained a threat in exile, and the continued "belligerent support" of
Siward and Leofric was thus vital to King Edward's safety. It was
apparently, however, the reluctance of these two earls to fight Earl
Godwine that contributed to Godwine's re-establishment in England in
1052.
There is evidence to suggest that Siward extended his power southward,
bringing the shire of Northampton into his control in the 1040s and
the shire of Huntingdon in the 1050s. The evidence comes from royal
writs addressed to Siward as earl in these shires. Siward's
predecessors as earl in these areas were other Scandinavians, Thuri
and Bjorn son of Earl Ulf; the former was styled "earl of the
Midlanders" ('comes mediterraneorum'), showing that this earldom
represented the earlier polity of the Middle Angles of Mercia. It was
this area, rather than Northumbria, to which Siward's descendants were
most attached.
Likewise, it has been argued that Siward brought Cumberland, thought
by some historians to have been lost to Strathclyde, back under
Northumbrian lordship. The evidence comes from a document known to
historians as "Gospatric's Writ". This is a written instruction,
issued either by the future Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria, or
Gospatric, son of Earl Uhtred, that was addressed to all Gospatric's
kindred and to the notables dwelling in the "all the lands that were
Cumbrian" ('on eallun þam landann þeo Cōmbres'); it ordered that one
Thorfinn mac Thore be free in all things ('þ Thorfynn mac Thore beo
swa freo in eallan ðynges') in Allerdale, and that no man is to break
the peace which was given by Gospatric and Earl Siward. Historians
such as Charles Phythian-Adams believed that such phraseology
indicated that Siward conquered the region from its previous rulers,
although others, like William Kapelle, believed that the region had
come, were it ever lost, back into English power before Siward's time.
A little can be said about Siward's relations with the Northumbrian
church, in particular with regard to his relations with Durham. As a
result of Siward's marriage to Ælfflæd, Siward gained possession of a
group of estates in Teesside claimed by the bishops of Durham.
Acquisition of these estates might have brought opposition from the
Bishop of Durham, but Æthelric the incumbent had been expelled by the
clergy of Durham in either 1045 or 1046 and, according to the
'Libellus de Exordio', only returned by bribing Siward. According to
the 'Libellus', the clergy were "terrified and overwhelmed by the
fearful power of the earl" and "were compelled willy nilly to be
reconciled to the bishop, and to admit him into his episcopal see".
Despite this, Siward escaped censure in the writings of later Durham
monks, something which suggests relations between Siward and Durham
were probably good in general.
Siward can be found witnessing numerous charters during Edward's
reign, though not as many as the Godwinsons; Siward usually comes
third in lists of earls, behind Godwine and Leofric but ahead of
Godwine's sons and the other earls. He witnessed at least seven,
possibly nine, extant charters in 1044, six or seven in 1045, two in
1046, one in 1048 and one in 1049. A 'Dux' ("earl") named Sihroþ and
Sihroð witnessed two charters in 1050, and this may be Siward. There
is another attestation in 1050, and his name appears in two dubious
witness lists attached to charters dating to 1052 and 1054. Possibly
Siward's last historical appearance in English legal documents is in
the agreement made--probably at Lincoln--between Wulfwig, Bishop of
Dorchester, and Earl Leofric, dating to between 1053 and 1055.
Expedition against the Scots
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|"Around this time Siward, the mighty earl of Northumbria, almost a
giant in stature, very strong mentally and physically, sent his son to
conquer Scotland. When they came back and reported to his father that
he had been killed in battle, he asked 'Did he receive his fatal wound
in the front or the back of his body?' The messengers said 'In the
front'. Then he said, 'That makes me very happy, for I consider no
other death worthy for me or my son'. Then Siward set out for
Scotland, and defeated the king in battle, destroyed the whole realm,
and having destroyed it, subjected it to himself".
| -- A description of Osbjorn's death and Siward's reaction, taken
from the 'Historia Anglorum' of Henry of Huntingdon
Siward is perhaps most famous for his expedition in 1054 against
Macbeth, King of Scotland, an expedition that cost Siward his eldest
son, Osbjorn. The origin of Siward's conflict with the Scots is
unclear. According to the 'Libellus de Exordio', in 1039 or 1040, the
Scottish king Donnchad mac Crínáin (Duncan I) attacked northern
Northumbria and besieged Durham. Within a year, Macbeth had deposed
and killed Donnchad. The failed siege occurred a year before Siward
attacked and killed Earl Eadwulf of Bamburgh, and though no connection
between the two events is clear it is likely that they were linked.
The 'Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham', written in the early 12th
century, relate under the year 1046 that "Earl Siward with a great
army came to Scotland, and expelled king Macbeth, and appointed
another; but after his departure Mac Bethad recovered his kingdom".
Historian William Kapelle thought that this was a genuine event of the
1040s, related to the 'Annals of Tigernach' entry for 1045 that
reported a "battle between the Scots" which led to the death of Crínán
of Dunkeld, Donnchad's father; Kapelle thought that Siward had tried
to place Crínán's son and Donnchad's brother Maldred on the Scottish
throne. Another historian, Alex Woolf, argued that the 'Annals of
Lindisfarne and Durham' entry was probably referring to the invasion
of Siward in 1054, but misplaced under 1046.
During the invasion of 1054, a battle was fought somewhere in Scotland
north of the Firth of Forth, a battle known variously as the "Battle
of the Seven Sleepers" or the "Battle of Dunsinane". The tradition
that the battle actually took place at Dunsinane has its origins in
later medieval legend. The earliest mention of Dunsinane as the
location of the battle is in the early 15th century by Andrew of
Wyntoun.
The earliest contemporary English account of the battle is found in
the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle', recension D:
'Her ferde Siward eolr mid miclum here on Scotland, ægðer ge mid
scyphere 7 mid landfyrde, 7 feaht wið Scottas, 7 aflymde þone kyng
Macbeoðen, 7 ofsloh eall þæt þær betst wæs on þam lande, 7 lædde þonan
micele herehuðe swilce nan man ær ne begeat, ' At this time earl
Siward went with a great army into Scotland, with both fleet and a
land-force; and fought against the Scots, and put to flight the king
Macbeth, and slew all that were best in the land, and brought thence
much war-spoil, such as no man obtained before;
' ac his sunu Osbarn, 7 his sweostor suna Sihward, 7 of his huscarlum
7 eac þæs cynges wurdon þær ofslægene on þone dæg Septem Dormientium..
' And there were slain his son Osbjorn, and his sister's son Siward,
and some of his housecarls, and also of the king's, on the day of the
Seven Sleepers (27 July). John of Worcester, using a related
version of the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle', adds that Normans named Osbern
Pentecost and Hugh, who had joined Macbeth earlier after fleeing from
England, were killed in the battle.
The battle is mentioned in the Irish annals too, briefly in the
'Annals of Tigernach' and more extensively in the 'Annals of Ulster':
'Cath eter firu Alban & Saxanu i torchradur tri mile do Feraib
Alban & mile co leth do Shaxanaib im Dolfinn m. Finntuir. ' A
battle [was fought] between the men of Scotland and the English; and
in it fell three thousand of the men of Scotland, and one thousand
five hundred of the English, including Dolfin, Finntur's son;
Dolfin is unidentified, but may have been a relation of Macbeth's
enemy Crínán of Dunkeld, on the basis that some of Crínán's
descendants may have borne this name.
The purpose of Siward's invasion is unclear, but it may be related to
the identity of the "Máel Coluim" (Malcolm) mentioned in the sources.
The early 12th-century chronicle attributed to John of Worcester,
probably using an earlier source, wrote that Siward defeated Macbeth
and made "Máel Coluim, son of the king of the Cumbrians" a king
('Malcolmum, regis Cumbrorum filium, ut rex jusserat, regem
constituit'). The identity of Máel Coluim and the reasons for Siward's
help are controversial. The traditional historical interpretation was
that "Máel Coluim" is Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, known sometimes today
as Malcolm III or Malcolm Canmore, and that Siward was attempting to
oust Macbeth in his favour.
The traditional historical interpretation that "Máel Coluim" is Máel
Coluim mac Donnchada derives from the 'Chronicle' attributed to the
14th-century chronicler of Scotland, John of Fordun, as well as from
earlier sources such as William of Malmesbury. The latter reported
that Mac Bethad was killed in the battle by Siward, but it is known
that Mac Bethad outlived Siward by two years. A. A. M. Duncan argued
in 2002 that, using the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' entry as their source,
later writers innocently misidentified Máel Coluim "son of the king of
the Cumbrians" with the later Scottish king of the same name. Duncan's
argument has been supported by several subsequent historians
specialising in the era, such as Richard Oram, Dauvit Broun and Alex
Woolf. It has also been suggested that Máel Coluim may have been a son
of the Strathclyde British king Owain Foel, perhaps by a daughter of
Máel Coluim II, King of Scotland.
Duncan in fact believes that the Battle of the Seven Sleepers did not
lead directly to a change of leadership in the Kingdom of Scotland. It
has been suggested that the chief consequence of Siward's expedition
was not the overthrow of Mac Bethad, but the transfer of British
territory--perhaps previously lying under Scottish suzerainty--to
Northumbrian overlordship. Alex Woolf has posited that, in such a
context, Máel Coluim might have been a discontented Cumbrian prince
who had been forced to "put himself under English protection".
Evidence for Northumbrian control of Strathclyde in this period
includes 11th-century Northumbrian masonry found at the site of
Glasgow Cathedral as well as early 12th-century claims from the
archbishopric of York that Archbishop Cynesige (1051-1060) had
consecrated two Bishops of Glasgow.
Death and legacy
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|"Siward, the stalwart earl, being stricken by dysentery, felt that
death was near, and said, "How shameful it is that I, who could not
die in so many battles, should have been saved for the ignominious
death of a cow! At least clothe me in my impenetrable breastplate,
gird me with my sword, place my helmet on my head, my shield in my
left hand, my gilded battle-axe in my right, that I, the bravest of
soldiers, may die like a soldier." He spoke, and armed as he had
requested, he gave up his spirit with honour".
| -- A description of Siward's death, taken from the 'Historia
Anglorum' of Henry of Huntingdon.
The 12th-century historian, Henry of Huntingdon, in his 'Historia
Anglorum', relates that when Siward was attacked by dysentery, fearing
to die "like a cow" and wishing rather to die like a soldier, he
clothed himself in armour and took to hand an axe and shield. Ennobled
in such a manner, Siward died. This anecdote is of doubtful
historicity, and is thought to be derived from the saga devoted to
Earl Siward, now lost. The 'Vita Ædwardi Regis' states that Siward
died at York and was buried in "the monastery of St Olaf" at Galmanho,
a claim confirmed by the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle', John of Worcester,
and the 'Historia Regum'.
Material incorporated in two surviving sources is thought by some to
attest to the existence of a lost saga or some other kind of literary
tradition concerning Siward's life. The first source is the 'Vita et
Passio Waldevi', a hagiographic history of Siward's cult-inspiring son
Waltheof. This text contains an account of Waltheof's paternal origin,
and in the process recounts certain adventures of his father Siward.
The second major witness of the tradition is Henry of Huntingdon's
'Historia Anglorum', which contains extracts of saga-like material
relating to Siward's invasion of Scotland (1054) and his death (1055).
The Anglo-Saxonist Frank Stenton declared that Siward was "not a
statesman, but a Danish warrior of the primitive type". Writers in the
half-century after his death remembered Siward as a strong ruler who
brought peace and suppressed brigandage.
Siward died more than a decade before the death of Edward the
Confessor, but despite this the Domesday Book of 1086 recorded 4
manors, 3 in Yorkshire and 1 in Derbyshire, owned directly by Earl
Siward in 1066, all of them subsequently held by Hugh d'Avranches,
Earl of Chester. This land was stated to have been worth £212, while
his son Waltheof was said to have held £136 worth of land across 9
counties. Domesday records give an incomplete picture of Siward's
holdings. In total it recorded property worth £348 for Siward and his
son, which on its own would compare poorly with the £2493 in value
recorded to have been held by the family of the earls of Mercia. Of
the latter, however, Morcar of Mercia, Earl of Northumbria on the day
of King Edward's death, possessed land worth £968, while Tostig,
exiled earl at the time, had land worth £491; both may have come into
possession of some of Siward's land in the course of becoming Earls of
Northumbria. Moreover, the counties that would become Durham,
Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were largely omitted from
the survey, while, besides being only very poorly documented, the
lands in Yorkshire had been severely devastated and devalued during
the Harrying of the North.
Siward is said to have built a church dedicated to St Olaf at
Galmanho, York. The record of his burial in this church is the only
notice of a non-royal lay burial inside a church in pre-Norman
England. Siward's Howe, i.e., Heslington Hill near York, was most
likely named after Earl Siward, although probably because Siward held
popular courts there rather than because it was his burial place.
One of Siward's sons is known to have survived him, Waltheof, whose
mother was Ælfflæd. Waltheof later rose to be an earl in the East
Midlands before becoming Earl of Northumbria. When Waltheof rebelled
against William the Conqueror, however, the act led to his execution
and to his subsequent veneration as a saint at Crowland Abbey.
Waltheof's daughter married David I, King of the Scots, and through
this connection Siward became one of the many ancestors of the later
Scottish and British monarchs.
Besides Ælfflæd, Siward is known to have been married to a woman named
Godgifu, who died before Siward. The marriage is known from a grant
she made of territory around Stamford, Lincolnshire, to Peterborough
Abbey. Although no surviving children are attested, and no source
states the name of Osbjorn's mother, this marriage has nonetheless
raised the possibility that Waltheof and Osbjorn were born to
different mothers, and William Kapelle suggested that Siward may have
originally intended Osbjorn to inherit his southern territories while
Waltheof inherited those territories in the north associated with the
family of his mother Ælfflæd.
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